Use and User Perception of Electronic Resources free essay sample

This has been underscored by the phenomenon of knowledge or information common in academic libraries, which refers to a specific environment in the library where a designated number of PC workstations are networked to databases and other e- resources are made available to students. Library users are no longer obliged to visit the library to meet all their information needs.They may search the librarys online catalogue; use a subject guide or database to access a citation from the internet or access a full text article from web-based journals; they may browse an electronic journal; fill out an interlibrary lending form; e-mail reference question via the ask-a-librarian service or borrow an e-book -? all by remote access. 11TH is the energetic name for several Institutes of Information Technology in India, each a mini university in itself. Many of these institutions have been subsequently renamed to identify their affiliations and goals. We will write a custom essay sample on Use and User Perception of Electronic Resources or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The tests were conceived to be forerunners in the information technology education sector, at a time when India was going through a phase of unprecedented boom in the software industry (Years 1 998 2000). The course curriculum at these institutes is at par with similar offerings at the Computer Science departments of Indian Institutes of Technology. As per the 11 the five year plan in the Budget 201 1, Twenty Three (23) more Ill Its under the Public-Private Model, are to be launched soon for every major state of India.Mascot recently submitted a detailed project report to the Gobo. Of India on the establishment of new Lilts. If these are accepted, it could be quite a contrast to the functioning of existing higher learning institutes. The Mascot report has identified a major role for private organizations in terms of finance, faculty and resources. Pat players may play key roles in new institutes Each of the Ill TTS has been proposed to be set up as a fully autonomous institution, through the APP model. The partners setting up Ill TTS will be the Ministry Of Human Resource Development, the governments of respective states where each 11TH will be established and industry members. The report is learnt to have suggested that private organizations should play an equal or slightly greater role in bringing investment for the new Lilts. The locations of Lilts have been arrived at on the basis of how well connected they are in terms of transport and facilities and their prominence to industrial hubs.Considering the dire faculty crunch in the country, Mascot has made it clear that faculty members must be given alerts prevalent in the market. It has been suggested that each Ill T must have the autonomy to decide its own salary structure to compete with private educational institutes. Collaborating private organizations would be requested to send their experienced employees as visiting faculty members. A higher number of visiting faculty and faculty-exchange programmed with universities in Ind ia and abroad have been suggested. Private organizations are expected to collaborate with the Lilts for knowledge manpower, giving projects to students and for curriculum guidance. The associated company loud look into the role of private organizations and enabling optimum rate of returns for them. The development of the PhD programmer, according to one of the suggestions, is vital to the growth of Ill TTS as these doctoral students could be groomed for teaching positions in Ill TTS, creating a strong pool of candidates for top academic positions.It has been recommended that the undergraduate programmer of Lilts could be scaled up to 600 students, the post-graduate programmer could take about 400 students and the PhD programmer could have an intake of 1 00 students. A faculty-student ratio of has been suggested. The report has suggested an integrated campus model and a hub-and-spoke campus model, depending on the TIT. Normally these institute offers degrees, at GIG, PEG and Doctoral levels, in following degrees offere d in Computer Science and Engineering, Electronics and Communication Engineering etc. .All the Tits have a well-equipped library with a variety of collections including e-resources like online databases, e- journals, e-books, full text articles, and websites, etc through LOGIC-Leone e- journals consortium, INDENT Consortium and N-LIST Consortium or any other insertions. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The faculties, research scholars and students of 11TH are mostly belonging to the subjects, Computer science, IT, Electronics and telecommunication; Electrical etc. Technological disciplines are professional subjects that require regular and constant study by teachers, students and researchers.Teachers usually depend upon the libraries to prepare themselves for taking classes and guide scholars. They are required to go through not only print resources but also electronic resources. The 11TH libraries are well equipped and member Of various consortium. They provide various e-resources such as online journals, e books, online databases, CD ROOM databases and facilities of OPAC and Web OPAC. Usually the users of these libraries are computer savvy and acquaint with various e-resources.The present study will confine with this hypothesis and to study how far these libraries provide various e-resources and services to avis users. Finally the users may not be acquainted with the procedures to locate and retrieve the right and accurate information in less time from the various e-resources. Hence they require some sort of training such as information literacy programmer) OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The study was to be undertaken to analyses the effectiveness of e-resources provided by Ill T libraries in India for its faculty members and research scholars in different faculties.Specific objectives of the study are: 1 . To know the awareness of e-resources among the users of Ill T Library; 2. To study the degree of utilization of e-journals by the users of 11TH Library 3. To determine the level of satisfaction of the users on e-resources; and to examine the effectiveness of e-resources in upgrading the faculty members ND research scholars in their profession. 4. To study the availability of CIT infrastructures in these libraries. 5.To find out the different search strategies of the target audience for obtaining relevant information find out the existing e-resources facilities in these libraries and to study how far these resources are useful and effective for its users. 7. To access and find out how far the users area competent to locate and use e-resources. 8. To study the factors encouraging the e-resources particularly to find out whether the information literacy programmer are being provided by these libraries.SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS The present research study is proposed to bring within its confines the faculties and research scholars of all the 17 Lilts located at different places across India. SIZE OF THE SAMPLE For the purpose of present investigation, it has bee proposed to include all the 17 Its existing in India and the faculties and research scholars working there in. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Harridans and Shanghaied on a survey conducted at National Social Science Documentation Centre (NANOSECOND) reveal that majority of the users which include research scholars and scientists were aware of most of the electronic resources.Sexagenarians, Bulgarians, and Subordination that among nine departments in Binary Amman Institute of Technology (BAIT), co mputer science and engineering users use the electronic journals highest (17%) followed by information technology (1 6%), computer applications (1 5%), electrical and electronics engineering (12%), electronics and communication engineering (1 0%), mechanical engineering (9%), biotechnology (8%), Civil engineering (7%) and textile technology (6%). Several and Supernaturalism that with regard to the satisfaction of users on the adequacy of e-resources provided by Benedictory University Library, 70. 59 % of users were satisfied while 29. 41% ware not. Razz and Payday found that that all the researchers were aware of e-journals in Aligarhs Muslim University. Many research scholars were consulting e-journals from their departmental labs and computer centers, not only for research purposes but also to update their own knowledge and skills.However, the study also revealed several problems, including lack obtaining and slow downloading. Mohamed and Shareholding that most (93. 40 per cent) of the doctoral dents had access to e-journals and a sizeable number (48. 83 per cent) of the male doctoral students used e-journals everyday. Most (73. 63 per cent) of doctoral students indicated that accessing full-text of articles was the major problem faced browsing e-journals. Surveillance that majority of respondents (3750%) made use of E-resources 2-3 times a week whereas only 40. 3% respondents made use of online databases. Paraphrases and Cumberland O observed that most of the research scholars searched printed journals and electronic journals. GIGS-Leone consortium was most lawful in fulfilling their Information needs. Hypo T H For the purpose of present study, the following hypotheses have been formulated to put the investigation in right track and the progress of investigation more scientific. 1. Faculty and research scholars who have more computer experience will be more likely to use the librarys electronic resources. 2.Users who visit the library more often are likely to use the librarys electronic resources. 3. Mostly the users devote time in surfing internet. 4. Faculties prefer e-resources in comparison to conventional resources in print form. METHODOLOGY To collect data, a questionnaire will be designed with questions like demographic characteristics, computer skills, frequency of use, satisfaction with e-resources, performance of the library in satisfying the needs of the faculty members and research scholars. Besides questionnaire method, observation and interview methods will also be adopted.The target population of this study was faculty members and research scholars from different faculties. The total population of faculty members and research scholars was 800 and 250 respectively. Proportionate stratified random impaling technique will be adopted for deriving sample population which constitutes 30 percent of total population from each category. Thus, a total of 31 5 questionnaires 240 for faculty members; and 75 for research scholars will be distributed. The questionnaire will be self-administered.SCHEME OF THE WORK It is proposed to organize the whole work in different chapters, inter alias, includes purpose, scope, methodology, origin and development, the conceptual frame work, information needs and seeking behaviors and use of electronic resources: There will be a review of literature which will determine OTOH quantity and quality of work done in the area. Since the study is primarily a user study, it will shed some light on user studies carried out at different levels in India and abroad. Besides it is essential to use tabulation, analysis and interpretation of relevant data along with the useful findings and suggestion.The present study will provide a b reak though to technological information environment. Thus, for the sake of convenience, the entire study would be dealt with in six broad chapters as follows: Chapter 1 : Introduction Chapter 2: Review of literature Chapter 3 : Research design Chapter 4: Usage of e-resources Chapter 5 : Users perceptions and expectations. From libraries Chapter 6: Analysis and interpretation of data Chapter 7 : Summary , suggestions and conclusion However, the aforesaid chapters are tentative and may be changed according to the requirement and progress of the investigation.STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES: The study has proposed to utilize and appropriate statistical technique so as to make the work statistically significant. After collection Of data and their necessary recording and tabulation, an appropriate statistical technique suitable to the needs of data collected will be selected and utilized at the take of analysis and interpretation. IMPLICATION OF RESEARCH The proposed research will act as a fact finding study to find out the existing CIT infrastruct ural facilities and services relating to e-resources provided to TIT users and whether these are as per the expectations and perceptions of these users.Further, this research will implicate, whether the library staff are competent enough to handle the CIT infrastructures and meet the users perceptions and expectations. This will also implicate how far the 11TH library users are using the e-resources provided to them and the constraints if any of TTS convenient use and the training if any provided to them by these libraries which will enhance their usage capability. F-anally the present study will boost the future researchers by providing the area which was not covered by this study for further research.CONCLUSION The development and delivery Of high-quality users service is an important goal for any libraries in higher education. The libraries are changing from storehouse of books to dynamic service center. In an academic library (engineering science and technology), the user needs the library services on a wide range of areas and anytime. The delay in giving the right information in right time may lead to delay in their research activity. Hence the professional librarians should always be a step ahead of their users.As a result, the professional librarian can identify the right documents to be procured, appropriate organization of documents to be undertaken and right information services to be developed . Alt can be concluded that the 11TH libraries need to provide web-based library and information services to the users under intranet and Internet environment. It is also noted that there is great desire among the users to implement the library and information revise through Institute website. There is also a need to plan an integrated training programmer for the users as well as the library staff for an effective utilization of services.A regular feedback from the faculty and students will also go a long way in improving the library services and their changing expectations can be met effectively. Finally It is imminent at this time to make such a study so as to identify the usage nature and characteristics and behavioral approaches of the users (faculty and research scholars), so that the real building of libraries attached to these institutions can be made by ending effective services in providing e-resources accessing and maximum usage as a result of proper utilization of Institute s funds and expenses meant for library purpose.

KK1 essays

KK1 essays The film A Fish Called Wanda is on the AFIs (American Film Institute) Greatest 100 Comedies list. Although this film features talented actors like John Cleese and Jamie Lee Curtis, Kevin Kline easily steals the show. Kline gives a brilliant performance as the pseudo-intellectual Otto. What makes Kline so remarkable is the way that he moves and makes his character dance across the screen. Right from the outset, in one of the films first scene, we see that Klines Otto is no normal jewel thief. Even though Otto is supposed to be working under the guise that he is Wandas (Jamie Lee Curtis) sister, he quickly gives her breast a squeeze in full view of Ken, one of the other robbers. What makes this movement work comically is that Kline does it so lightening fast and that if you blinked you might miss it. He has such control over his arm that he is able to extend it, and withdraw it in a matter of maybe a second. This allows for the suspended disbelief that Ken does not see him do it. Another movement that Kline makes also speaks volumes about his body control. Otto and Wanda are together in what I take to be Ottos quarters. They are speaking excitedly about something and he leaps into the air, grabs a pipe that is suspended from the ceiling, lifts himself completely off the ground and sails on to the bed with the grace of a ballerina. This is so interesting because Klines Otto is supposed to a be a vulgar American bank robber. His graceful movement is evidenced again when Otto and Wanda go to the garage to claim the jewels the stole from a safe. Otto is angered by the fact that the jewels are not there. He goes over to kick a car out of anger. Rather then just kicking the tire, or burying his foot into the car door, Kline leaps into up and kicks the car twice while he is in the air. He takes what is just a simple movement and makes into something much more. While Kevin Kline is not a big man i...

Getting into Editing as a Writer

Getting into Editing as a Writer Many writers expand their services to offer more than writing; are you a writer wanting to become an editor? Here’s how to pick up your first jobs and start editing away†¦ Associations and more Join editorial societies like the  Editorial Freelance Association  (EFA),  Society for Editing  (ACES),  Editors’ Association of Canada, and the  Society for Editors and Proofreaders  (UK) . They put you in touch with fellow professionals and clients through association job boards – and underwrite your capabilities as an editor. Rates and payments Suggested editing rates can be found at the  Editorial Freelance Association  (EFA, USA), the  Society for Editors and Proofreaders  (SFEP, UK) and the  South African Freelancers Association(SAFREA, ZAR). Stick to the market average: Not too low and not too high. Rates also depend on the project’s size, the level of editing needed and the editing type – specialized editing pays more. Insist on a deposit upfront for first-time clients and get the terms in writing. (Hourly Editing Rates Calculator) Types of editing†¦ Editors can specialize in nonfiction, short fiction, novels or

Processing the Crime Scene and Establishing Identity Case Study

Processing the Crime Scene and Establishing Identity - Case Study Example Murder is suspected as there is no reason for the girl to have committed suicide. It is an open and shut case, as the mother has named the suspect. After completing the formalities of investigation, it will become clear to establish motives and nail the suspect who is a school drop out and has been stalking the girl. She agreed for a date the previous night but failed to return until the suspect brought her home in an unconscious condition. According to the mother, she was a bright girl and did not need to be woken up. She had agreed to date the boy on the condition that he never asked her out again. Probably she felt he would see reason if she talked to him and encouraged him to resume schooling. She wanted the best for him. She was the type who met challenges head on. The police had come and sealed off the bedroom. The photographer was taking photographs from various angles. There were others with the police to take fingerprints, analyze DNA samples, footwear experts, and another person who looked after computer forensics. The fingerprint and DNA samples were taken. The computer forensics was only present to see first hand the body position of the deceased. The forensics report would have to wait as it came under analysis that took place at the general hospital.

Is Facebook Marketing Effective Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Is Facebook Marketing Effective - Research Paper Example The methodology that I have opted for this research is qualitative methodology, as I will involve the available literature for answering the question of my research that is â€Å"Is Facebook marketing effective?†. Qualitative methodology involves literature review in which, the reviewer can make use of available information to analyze his topic and find answers to questions raised in a study. Literature review is quite beneficial as the student gets a chance to collect useful information pertaining a topic of his own interest and can reuse this information for finding solution to the problems in his study. For this study, literature review is much more suitable. Internet is an attractive medium for different kinds of businesses operative in today’s world. A rapid increase can be seen in e-commerce and internet marketing activities all over the globe. People of all ages show interest in the usage of this network as they can connect with the whole world. Social networking websites can be categorised as the most likable platform for all the users of internet. Among many other social networking websites, Facebook is one. Businesses and e-businesses all over the world give significance to Facebook as a social networking site suitable for advertising purposes. A large number of internet users make use of Facebook for their routine communication with their mates and the interest of businesses and e-businesses in Facebook point towards the fact that market is aware of the importance of Facebook to reach its customers. Marketing or advertising on Facebook is quite essential in today’s scenario when the businesses can find a large number of potential customers there (Arntz, 2009). While using Facebook, we can notice a number of advertisements on the site, which advertise different categories of services and products. We can find banner ads, side bar ads, separate advertising pages, Facebook profiles of companies and so on and all these category of ma rketing comes under the category of eMarketing. According to Liptak (2009), these ads usually take the users of Facebook on their clicking the ad to the descriptive page of the advertisement showing contact description and other important data about the advertised product or service. Not only the ads take the users to the internal pages of Facebook but to other websites keeping descriptive information about company, products and services. E-commerce websites, content based websites and other websites delivering information display various banner ads and side bar ads for the promotion of products and services of companies whether they are online firms or offline firms as these are the most common categories of internet advertising. According to Ducoffe (1996), e-commerce websites can be described as websites that can be seen on internet for international customers, they are designed for broad range of customers and people can access them for the provision of services and products. Th e e-commerce websites provide the ordered or purchased products and services at the homes of consumers. Therefore, it can be said that for e-commerce websites, which are themselves based on internet processing, can make use of internet advertisements for their business promotion. Ducoffe (1996) explains that e-commerce websites have eased the process of shopping. These websites not only bring to light their marketing campaigns on their own websites but also on other websites. Content-based websites also display various categories of internet ads in the form of banner ads and side bar ads. These websites are designed for information deliverance purposes and are able to

DBQ for AP United States History Essay Example for Free

DBQ for AP United States History Essay Britains taxation on the American colonists greatly affected the relationship between the two nations. Moreover, the colonists were not being represented. The feeling of deprivation not only angered the Americans, but may have also opened their eyes to see the need of a revolutionary movement. Thomas Jefferson states in A Summary View of the Rights of British America that they possessed a right, which nature has given to all men. The British deprived the colonists of these rights when they did not allow a representative in the House of Commons, as decided in the Resolutions of the Stamp Act Congress of 1765. This was especially unfair for the colonists for they were not only being taxed, but also received nothing in return for their own benefit. Additionally, the taxes did not profit the colonist itself. Rather, all tax profits went to Britain. It was a way for the British to reimburse the financial debts from the Great War for Empire. Taxation on the colonists was a way the British liquidated its war debt, as stated in Document N. As said in the Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms (Document I), The colonists did not give consent to Britain to take away their money by exploiting the land by heavy taxes. They felt that only they had the power and the right to tax themselves. As new heavy taxes piled upon each other, the colonists realized even more the need of an outbreak from Britain and the destruction it has brought upon the colonists. Thomas Paine explains in Common Sense that there is something very absurd in supposing a continent to be perpetually governed by an island. Paine is saying that a small island like Britain cannot rule a big continent, as a small child cannot rule grown adult. The author of the Stamp Act and former Prime Minister George Grenville states that Great Britains intention is to protect America and nothing more. By doing this favor, he believes America should yield to British authority and practice obedience. Thomas Paine rebuttals and argues that only small islands that are incapable of protecting themselves should be the ones who are taken under a kingdoms care. Paine believes that this is not the case for the colonists. He sees that America is not a small island in need of help. Rather, America is geographically secure, politically mature, prosperous, dynamic, and self-reliant, as Lawrence Henry Gibson states in Document O. Thomas Paine also calls for a move towards democracy. The American people could no longer live under the bondage of British authority, which stripped them of their natural rights. Britain, for example, deprived [the colonists] of the accustomed and inestimable privilege of trial by jury, (Document I) which they claimed to have violated their life and property. Document L illustrates of the austerity of British rule. A woman lay on the ground naked and distressed, while British officials watch with pleasure. Surely, they had to respect for the motherlands offspring. Clearly, this is not a way to show that the British protected and cared for the colonists as George Grenville previously stated when he spoke on Repeal on January 14, 1766. Because of unequal treatment, the American desire for equal representation grew the more. The unfair treatment of the British to the Americans only pushed the colonists to their limit. Taxation without any representation, or benefits in return truly raised an issue of equality. The British has suppressed the colonists. Weary of this, the colonists moved towards a revolutionary movement, wanting to escape the British Crown and authority, but all the more, where they would take up on democracy in which they could practice equal representation.

Catholic and Christians Missionaries in Africa Essay -- African Histor

Marlow, the main character in Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness, is fascinated by unknown areas of the world and also enjoys the feeling of being afloat on water. To quench this curiosity of the mysterious, he ventures into the wilderness to face the adventures that lay inside the â€Å"heart of darkness†, Africa. Unbeknownst by him at first, Marlow is viewed as a missionary: the man that will bring light to the â€Å"dark† continent (Heart 3). In The Heart of Darkness, Marlow’s aunt refers to him as an â€Å"emissary of light, something like a lower sort of apostle†. It is obvious that Marlow is regarded as a missionary, although in his mind, he is simply going to Africa to complete a job. However, there were 1.6 million Evangelical Christians (people committed to converting people to Christianity) in Africa at the time that Joseph Conrad was writing Heart of Darkness (Vermeulen 2). The first of these missionaries were Portuguese Catholics that were accompanying seafaring explorers. They first arrived in Sub-Sahara Africa in the 1400s and immediately saw their toil come to fruition when â€Å"Kingdo...

Product Positioning in the Market

ISSN 1392-2785 ENGINEERING ECONOMICS. 2008. No 1 (56) COMMERCE OF ENGINEERING DECISIONS Theoretical Aspects of Product Positioning in the Market R ta Ostasevi i t Kauno technologijos universitetas K. Donelai io g. 73, LT-44029, Kaunas The article consists of fourteen parts, starting with the introduction where the novelty, the problem of the research, the object of the research, the purpose of the research and the research methods are described.The purpose of the article is systemization and thorough description of the knowledge and information (found in a large number of sources) about the positioning concept, its position in the STP model, coherent description of the product positioning process steps as recommendations for successful product positioning process accomplishment. It is obvious that to be successful a product must occupy an explicit, distinct, and proper place, in the minds of potential and existing consumers, relative to other rival products on the market. Product pos itioning is the tool to achieve the above mentioned result.The article analyses how the product should be positioned on the market. The second part of the artic conceptions of product positioning in the market. Those include: Etzel, Walker, Stanton (1997), Ries and Trout (1986), Kotler (2006), Armstrong (2006), Bhat (1998), Fill (2006), Ferrel (1997), Lamb, Hair, McDaniel (2004), Boone and Kurz (2001). The third part defines the basement of product following parts: segmentation, targeting and positioning. The fourth part describes product positioning steps, interpreted by different scholars.There are two samples of product positioning process given (by Hooley (2004) and Hutt, Spech (2004)) and a model created by the authors of this article. The seventh part, identification and analysis of competitive products in the market, describes the best means how to distinguish competitive products, different levels of competition. The eighth part, identification of determinant attributes and measuring their significance to the user, reveals the techniques for selection of determinant attributes and criteria for successful determinant attributes.The ninth part, identification of current position of the product and other competing products according to determinant attributes, shows possible ways of carrying out this product positioning process stage. The tenth part, composition of the positioning map, reveals the process of their creation and provides reasons why it is such a powerful tool for examining the positions of products. The eleventh part, the determination of the desired position of the product, speaks about the ideal position of a product and where companies want to position their products (the desired position).The twelfth paragraph, called the selection of positioning or repositioning strategy, reveals possible positioning strategies proposed by various authors, repositioning strategies, presented by Doyle, Stern (2006), possible reasons of inadequate positio ning. The thirteenth part, creation of the positioning statement, discusses the three models of creation of product positioning statement: X-Y-Z model, I-D-U model, and a-b-e model. The last part consists of conclusions on theoretical studies of product positioning process. Keywords: product positioning, product positioning teps, determinant attributes, positioning map, positioning and repositioning strategy, positioning statement. Introduction There is no product in the world that does not have a position. Product positioning is about visibility and recognition and what product represents for a buyer. In markets where the intensiveness of rivalry and competition are increasing and buyers have a greater intrinsic values become critical. An offering with a clear identity and orientation to a needs will not only be purchased, but can warrant a larger margin through increased added value.Numerous organizations are trying to manage their positions occupied by their products and are usin g different positioning strategies to move to new positions in consumers minds and so generate an advantage over their competitors. Earlier positioning was very important in markets that are very competitive and where mobility barriers are relatively low. Nowadays these market characteristics can be applied almost to every industry or business, and to any economy. No product, of those which have survived, can be imagined without clear, distinct and intensive positioning.It is vivid, that for a successful product in the market good quality and well known brand are not enough. The product must occupy an explicit, distinct, and proper place, in the minds of potential and existing consumers, relative to other rival products on the market. Reaching (or not reaching) that desirable position in the minds of consumers is the result of successful (or not successful) positioning. The article analyses how the product should be positioned on the market. The object of the research: product posit ioning in the market.Purpose of the research: to systemize and thoroughly describe the knowledge and information (found in a large number of sources) about the positioning concept, its position in the STP model, coherently describe the product positioning process steps as recommendations for successful product positioning process accomplishment. Research methods used: Conducting theoretical studies of positioning in the market, the method of comparative analysis and systematization of scientific literature were used.Concept of product positioning There is a great number of different definitions of positioning in scientific literature of marketing. The concept of positioning seeks to place a product in a certain rspective buyers. Marketers offerings from those of competitors and to create promotions that communicate the desired position. Boone and Kurz (2001) Scientists Etzel, Walker and Stanton (1997) refer to a product and to differentiate (position) it in a favorable way from simi lar products. Ries and Trout (1986) distinguish from all other marketing theoretics, stating that positioning is not what is done to a product.Positioning is what you do to the mind of the prospect. The same authors indicate that positioning starts with a product. A piece of merchandise, a service, a company, an institution, or even a person. However, Kotler (2006) defines positioning as the act of designing the upies a distinct and valued position in the target consumers mind. Scholars Kotler, Armstrong (2006) verify that market positioning is arranging for a product to occupy a clear, distinctive, and desirable place, in the minds of target consumers, relative to competing products.Thus, marketers plan positions that distinguish their products from competing products and give them the greatest strategic advantage in their target markets. The purpose of positioning is to create a unique and favorable image in the minds of target customers, Bhat (1998). The author Fill (2006) states , that positioning, therefore, is the natural conclusion to the sequence of activities that constitute a core part of the marketing strategy. Market segmentation and target marketing are prerequisites to successful positioning.Product positioning refers to the decisions and activities intended to create and maintain a certain concept 1997). Positioning is developing a specific marketing mix to brand, product line, or organization in general (Lamb, Hair, McDaniel 2004) perceptions of a products attributes relative to the attributes of competitive products. Buyers make a large number of purchase decisions every day. To avoid constant reevaluation of numerous products, buyers tend to group, decisions. Rather than allowing customers to position products independently, marketers must try to influenceThe steps of STP model The foundation of positioning theory is made of one of the most important postulates of the science of marketing. extremely diverse and that a the postulate it is simpl e to define the essence of the STP model: to present the product to those consumers, who want it and are able to acquire it. The first two steps of the STP model serve to find and define the desired consumer, and positioning serves for placing the product in the desirable position in the minds of target consumers.Scholars Grancutt, Leadley and Forsyth (2004) thoroughly describe the STP model steps in the table below Table 1 The STP model steps Segmentation * Choose variables for segmenting market * Build a profile of the segments (sub-segments) * Validate emerging segments Targeting * Decide on targeting strategy * Identify which and how many segments should be targeted Positioning * Understand consumer perceptions * Position products in the mind of the consumer * Design appropriate marketing mix to communicate positioning Source: Grancutt, Leadley, Forsyth (2004)Product positioning steps Scholar Winner (2007) has a distinct view on product positioning decisions; he emphasizes custo mer decision making process as the most important issue in product positioning steps. According to the scientist, marketers have to answer the following questions when positioning the product What dimensions do consumers use to evaluate product offerings in the industry or category? How important is each of these dimensions is in the decision making process? How do you and competition compare on the dimensions? What decision processes do the customers use?The author Hooley (2001) determines these stages of product positioning process: Table 2 Product positioning steps Identification of competitors Singling out decision making attributes Evaluation out of decision making attribute significance Identify the determinant attributes and measure their significance to the user Product positioning steps Identify and analyze competitive products in the market Table 4 Identification of competitor position according to the most important attributes Identify the current position of the product and other competing products according to determinant attributesIdentification of consumer needs Preparation of a consumer map Selection of the desired position Selection of positioning strategy Source: Grancutt, Leadley, Forsyth (2004) Compose the positioning map Determine the desired position of the product Select positioning or repositioning strategy Create the positioning statement Scientists Hutt, Spech (2004) suggest the following steps in the product positioning process: Table 3 Product positioning steps Identify the relevant set of competitive products Identify the set of determinant attributes that customers use to differentiate among options and determine the preferred choiceIdentification and analysis of competitive products in the market Drawing positioning frames for a product, category membership should be determined first, i. e. other products that compete in the same market and can serve as substitutes. The best considered means for determination is allows collecting a large amount of useful data, which is easily systemized, adapted, processed statistically. One of the main advantages of consumer survey is the anonymousness. Deep interview can be also used to determine the rival products in the market, but due to larger time and financial costs is used seldom.Scientists Hooley, Saunders, Piercy (2006) state that competition can take place in the following levels: Competition with products with analogous qualities Competition in the same product group Competition with other products that satisfy the same or very similar consumer demand Competition in the same consumer demand level As mentioned above it is vitally important not only to determine all products on the same shelf, but also determine the rivals to the whole shelf. Identification of determinant attributes and measuring their significance to the userCollect information from a sample of existing and potential customers concerning their ratings of each product on the determinant attribute s offerings for each market segment Examine the fit between preferences of market segments and current position of product Select positioning or repositioning strategy Source: Hutt, Spech (2004) Concentrating all discussed product positioning models the authors of this article propose the following algorithm of positioning process steps.After the identification and analysis of competitive products in the market, determinant attributes should be identified and their significance to the user should be measured. According to Aaker, (2005) determinant attributes define not only the products benefits and value to the user, but also associations with the product consuming process and with the consumer himself. The authors Hooley, Saunders, Piery (2006) consider a qualitative Determination of the desired position of the productIdentification of the current position of the product and other competing products according to determinant attributes Selection of positioning or repositioning stra tegy Composition of the positioning map It is important to mention, that the above mentioned strategies are not discrete and usually are just pats of complex hybrid strategies, used by marketers. Sometimes, changes in the competitive environment force marketers to repositi position it holds in the minds of consumers relative to the positions of competing products.Scientists Doyle, Stern (2006) suggest the following repositioning options (the first two are real repositioning strategies, the rest can be considered psychological): Introduce a new brand Change existing brand Alter beliefs about the brand Alter beliefs about competitive brands Alter attribute importance weights Introduce new or neglected attributes Find a new market segment Not only changes on the market lead to a demand for a new repositioning strategy.Very often the product fails because of marketers initial positioning mistakes. Brooke (1994) states that a product may be inadequately positioned for three reasons: The segment in which it is targeted might have become unattractive because it is too small, declining, too competitive or otherwise unprofitable. Positioning might be inadequate because the quality and features that the product offers do not appeal to the segment to which it is targeted. igh to allow it to be priced competitively. Scientists Grancutt, Leadley, Forsyth (2004), Kotler (2006) indicate four main risky product positions on the market: underpositioning, overpositioning, confused positioning and doubtful positioning: Table 5 Risky positions Potential risk Underpositioning Comment Some companies discover that buyers have only a vague idea of the brand and the features/benefits of that brand.Customers may not be aware of anything particularly special about the brand Customers may have too narrow a view of the brand. Therefore a consumer might think that a particular glass company, for example, only produces luxury items that retail at high prices. However, it may produce a varie ty of cheaper standard glassware. Customers could be confused about the position of the brand within the marketplace. This confusion may result from the company making too many positioning too frequently.Customers may find it hard to believe the claims made by the company about its brand in view of benefits, the price and the name of the manufacturer. Source: Grancutt, Leadley, Forsyth (2004) This process is probably the most laborious and difficult element positioning implementation steps. Scholars Capon, Hulbert (2001) define the creation of positioning statement as a complex, creative, and highly interactive process, often involving many cut-and-try attempts, before the satisfactory result is achieved.Clear positioning statements have major value. For example, one of the most common complaints advertising companies make about their clients is that they have not clarified their strategies. Although positioning statements are not advertising messages, they provide excellent difficu lty. According to Kalafatis, Tsogas, Blankson (2000) positioning statements play a vital role in helping to guide rts in the marketplace, they are both crucial internally and externally.Scientists Rossiter, Piercy (1997) define the following models for product positioning statement creation: X-YZ macromodel I-D-U mezomodel A-b-e micromodel Creating positioning statement according to the X-YZ model, a marketer should decide on the following issues: nded target audience (Y) product category (X) what benefit (benefits) does the product bring to consumer (Z) Any kind of advertising attempts should emphasize: the benefit to the consumer, which should be unique emotions. he emphasized benefit must be important to the whole product category (I) not mention at all or forewarn consumer of possible product weaknesses (D). Conclusions Having completed the theoretical studies of product positioning in the market the following conclusions can be made: Positioning plays a key role when reaching t he desired place in the mindsets of potential and existing consumers. Most scientists of the field of marketing define product positioning as arrangements for a product to occupy a clear, distinctive, and desirable place in the minds of target consumers, relative to competing products in the market.The position of a product is formed by products attributes relative to the attributes of competitive products Product positioning is an inseparable and most important part of the STP model. If the first two steps (segmentation and targeting) contain flaws or are inadequately or incompletely performed, successful product positioning is doomed to fail. Summarizing the opinion of various scholars, it is obvious that product positioning is a complex, Overpositioning Confused positioning Doubtful positioningCreation of the positioning statement From the research data obtained in the first steps of product positioning process and the marketing strategy developed, it is necessary to formulate a positioning statement that is in tune with the promotional objectives. continuing and chain process. While positioning a product marketers should at least (there can be more) go through the following steps: 1. identify and analyze competitive products in the market, 2. identify the determinant attributes and measure their significance to the user, 3. select positioning or repositioning strategy, 4. ompose the positioning map, 5. determine the desired position of the product, 6. identify the current position of the product and other competing products according to determinant attributes, 7. create positioning statement. References 1. 2. Aaker, D. A. Strategic Marketing Management. New York: The Free Press, 2005. Arora R. Product positioning based on search, experience and creedence attributes using conjoint analysis // Journal of product and brand management, Nr. 5, 2006. Bhat, S. Symbolic and functional positioning of brands / S. Bhat, S. Reddy //Journal of Consumer Marketing, 1998, No 1, p. 2-43. Boone, L. Contemporary marketing 10th edition/ L. Boone, D. Kurtz. Harcourt, 2001. Brooksbank R. The anatomy of positioning strategy. // Marketing intelligence and planning. 1994, No. 4, Capon, N. Marketing Management / N. Capon, J. M. Hulbert. Upper Saddle River, 2001. Dik ius, V. Marketingo tyrimai: teorija ir praktika. Vilnius, 2006. Doyle, P. Marketing management and strategy Fourth edition. / P. Doyle, Ph. Stern, Harlow, 2006. Etzel, M. Marketing 11th edition / M. Etzel, B. Walker, W. Stanton. New Jersey, 1997. 24. intelligence and planning, No. 5, 2002. 25. Pranulis, V.Marketingo tyrimai / Vilnius, 1998. 26. Ries, A. Positioning: The Battle for Your Mind / A. Ries, J. Trout. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1986. 27. Rossiter, J. Advertising Communications and Promotion Management / J. Rossiter, L. Piercy. New York: McGraw hill, 1997. 28. Sheinin, D. A. Positioning brand extensions: implications for beliefs and attitudes // Journal of Product & Brand Management, 1998, No 2. 29. Winer, R. S. Marketing Management. Third edition / Upper Saddle River, 2007. R ta Ostasevi i t Prek s pozicionavimo rinkoje teoriniai aspektai Santrauka Pasaulyje nerasime prek s, kuri netur t pozicijos.Prek s pozicija yra tai, kaip pirk jas suvokia prek pagal tam tikrus apsisprendimo tos pa ios kategorijos preki . Prek identitetu ir orientacija potenciali ar esam pirk j norus ne tik bus noriai perkama, bet ir gali garantuoti didesnius pelnus, kadangi yra sukuriama didesn prid tin vert . Dauguma organizacij bando valdyti savo preki vairias pozicionavimo strategijas, kad patekt naujas (norimas) pozicijas potenciali ar esam pirk j galvosenose ir taip susikurt ias prekes. Anks iau pozicionavimas buvo laba jimo barjer charakteristikos gali b verslui. N ti ir gana intensyvaus pozicionavimo.Tyrimo problema: savaime suprantama, kad s kmingai prekei rinkoje geros kokyb turi ir tinkam viet esam ir potenciali vartotoj galvosenoje. Norimos pozicijos vartotoj galvosenoje pasiekimas (arb a nepasiekimas) yra s kmingo (ar nes kmingo) pozicionavimo rezultatas. tur t b ti pozicionuojama rinkoje. Tyrimo objektas: prek s pozicionavimas rinkoje. Tyrimo tikslas: iai informacij apie prek s pozicionavimo koncepcij viet s rinkoje, kaip rekomendacijas s kmingai gyvendinti prek s pozicionavim rinkoje. Tyrimo metodai: atliekant teorin prek s pozicionavimo rinkoje tyrim , naudota sistemin bei lyginamoji mokslin s literat ros analiz .Prek s pozicionavimo koncepcija: Mokslin je marketingo literat roje galima rasti labai daug skirting prek s pozicionavimo rinkoje apibr . Boone ir Kurtz (2001) pozicionavimo koncepcij apib dina kaip prek s traukim tam tikr viet potenciali pirk j galvose. Autoriai Etzel, Walker ir Stanton (1997) marketing apib dina kaip vadybinink sugeb jim atkreipti vartotoj d mes prek ir palankiai diferencijuoti (pozicionuoti) j tarp kit preki . Jungtini Amerikos Valstij mokslininkai Ries ir Trout (1986) kit marketingo teoretik , teigdami, kad pozicionavimas vertinti ir suprasti savo ir konkurent preki pozicij prek s rinkoje.Pozicionavimas n ra tai, k darome prekei, tai – kaip veikiate potencialaus pirk laiko ir k rybiniu s, paslaugos, mon s ar iau pozicionuojant nedaroma Tuo tarpu Kotler (2006) teigia pinimas, kad prek , atskir ir norim viet i preki tikslini vartotoj mintyse. Apibendrinant – prek s pozicija rinkoje yra vartotojo suvokimas apie prek s atributus, palyginant juos su konkuruojan ios prek s atributais. Kiekvienas pirk jas kasdien daro daug ir vairi apsisprendim pirkti. nuolatinio preki jai paprastai prekes grupuoja, arba pozicionuoja savo m stysenoje, tam, kad supaprastint ir sutrumpint savo sprendimo pirkti pri mimo proces .Kad pirk jai nepozicionuot preki bandyti veikti pirk j suvokim apie prek . 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Ferrel, P. Marketing 10th edition / Boston, 1997. 11. Fill, Ch. Marketing communications: engagement, strategies and practice / Harlow, 2006. 12. Grancutt, J. Marketing: essential principles, new rea lities / J. Grancutt, P. Leadley, P. Forsyth. London, 2004. 13. Holley, G. Market -Focused resources, competitive positioning and firm performance / G. Holley, G. Greenley, J. Fahy and J. Cadogan //Journal of Marketing Management,2001, No 5/6, p 503-520. 14. Hooley, G. Marketing strategy and competitive positioning / G. Hooley, J.Saunders, F. N. Piercy. Prentice Hall, 2005. 15. Hutt, M. D. Business marketing management. 8th edition /M. D. Hutt, T. W. Spech. Prentice Hall, 2004. 16. Janonis, V. Brand Image Formation / V. Janonis, R. Virvilait // 78-90. 17. Kalafatis S. P. , Positioning strategies in business markets / S. P. Kalafatis, M. H. Tsogas, C. Blankson // Journal of business and industrial marketing. No 6, 2000 p. 416-437. 18. Knox S. Positioning and branding your organization // Journal of Product and Brand management, Nr. 2, 2004. 19. Kotler, Ph. Marketing management 12th edition / Ph. Kotler, K. L. Keller. Upper Saddle River, 2006. 20. Kotler, Ph.Principles of marketing: 6 th edition / Ph. Kotler, Armstrong, G. New Jersey, 1994. 21. Kotler, Ph. Rinkodaros principai / Ph. Kotler, G. Armstrong, J. Saunders, V. Wong. Kaunas, 2003. 22. Kotler, Ph. A framework for marketing management. Third edition. / Ph. Kotler, K. L. Keller. Upper Saddle River, 2007. 23. Lamb, W. Jr. Marketing. 7th edition / W. Lamb, Jr. , W. Hair. Jr. , C. McDaniel. Thompson south Western, 2004. Pozicionavimo pagrind postulat sudaro vienas svarbiausi marketingo s skirtingi, ir prek absoliu iai vardyti STP modelio naudojimo prasm potencialiai jo norintiems ir j galintiems vartotojams prek pasi lyti?Tam naudojami pirmieji du STP modelio s rinkos nustatymas. Tik po to prek gali b ti pozicionuojama – nustatoma jos pozicija tikslini vartotoj galvosenoje. tai nuomoni apie konkuruojan ias prekes (preki pozicij pasirinktos grup s asmen s mon je schema (Pajuodis, 2000). stymo pozicionavimo strategijas, mon nustato savo viet rinkoje vartotoj ir konkurent sti d l vartotoj grupi (segment ), kurioms bandys daryti poveik , ir kartu d l savo veiklos profilio, kuris patenkint min t vartotoj segment reikalavimus (tikslin s rinkos strategija). s irstomas etapais.Skirtingi autoriai pateikia skirting etap skai i , skiriasi ir j daugelio mokslinink si lomus prek straipsnio autor s pateikia tok j skai i konkuruojan i preki ; apsisprendimo atribut identifikavimas ir j vertinimas; esamos prek s pozicijos nustatymas; lapio suk rimas; norimos pozicijos rinkoje nustatymas; pozicionavimo arba perpozicionavimo strategijos parinkimas; pozicionavimo teiginio suk rimas. Konkuruojan i preki pozicionavimo r mus prekei, pirmiausia reikia nustatyti nario kategorij , kitas prekes, kurios konkuruoja su preke ir gali b ti jos pakaitalai.Geriausias b ias prekes yra kiekybinis tyrimo apklausa, nes , kuris paprastai respondent ias prekes, galima naudoti ir giluminio interviu metod , ta laiko s naudas ir efektyvum , patogiau atlikti vartotoj apklaus . G. J. Hooley, J. A. Saunders ir N. F Piercy (20 06) teigia, jog iomis prek mis; Konkurencija preki grup je; poreik Konkurencija su kitomis t pat tenkinan iomis prek mis; Konkuruoti to paties poreikio lygmenyje. Taigi nustatant konkurentus svarbu ne tik identifikuoti visas prekes, esan ias toje pa ioje parduotuv s lentynoje, bet ir nustatyti, kas konkuruoja su visa lentyna. teikiami naudos aspektai yra tinkami vartotojams. Anot D. A. Aaker (2005), atributas s savybes ir naud vartotojui, bet ir asociacijas su prek s vartojimu ir vartotoju. Kit mokslinink – (G. J. Hooley, J. A. igimu, atributus geriausia yra grup . Pasak identifikuoti naudojant kokybin tyrimo metod V. Dik iaus (2006) tam gali b ti naudojamos tokios projekcin s asociacijos, testas, temos suvokimo testas, vaidmen vaidinimas. Atrinki atributai bus vertingi tik t pozicionavimo instrumentas, skirtas tiksliai vizualiai apibr vietoje pagal psichologinius veiksnius yra mon s prek s, palyginti su prek mis.Norint nustatyti, kaip skirtingi preki pasi lymai yra suvokiami rinkoje, turi b ti numatomi pagrindiniai prek s atributai, pagal kuriuos suvokiama prek kaip tokia. Labai didel rezultatas) turi b rim . Tolesn l kes ius bei pirmum , ir kaip j plane atrodo prek su savomis savyb mis. Tam tikslui pasiekti ir sudaromas lapis. lapyje yra tas, kuris reprezentuoja labiausiai apsisprendimo atribut kombinacij ideali prek . mon s pasirenka norim savo prek s pozicij kuo ar iau idealios prek s pozicijos. augelis mokslinink (Fill, 2006; Kotler, 2007; Armstrong, 2004; Doyle, Stern, 2006) s pozicionavimo rinkoje Pagal prek s savybes; Pagal prek s teikiam naud ; Pagal vartojimo b d ar situacij ; Pagal vartotoj ; Pagal konkurent ; Pagal preki grup ; Pagal kokyb ar kain ; Pagal kult rinius simbolius ar kilm . Svarbu pamin ra diskre tiesiog dalys sud ting hibridini strategij , kurias pozicionuodami prekes rinkoje, naudoja marketologai. 1. X-YZ makromodelis; 2. I-D-U mezomodelis; 3. a-b-e mikromodelis.Juose nurodoma, kas yra pozicionuojama, kam tai yra skiriama, kas turi b ti pabr Atlikus teorin prek s pozicionavimo rinkoje studij , Pozicionavimas yra svarbiausias instrumentas norint pasiekti norim prek s pozicij esam ir potenciali vartotoj galvosenoje. Dauguma marketingo srities mokslinink prek s pozicionavim rinkoje apibr pinim , kad prek , atskir ir norim viet i preki tikslini vartotoj mintyse. Prek s pozicija formuojama per prek s atribut suvokim , lyginant su konkuruojan iomis prek mis. Prek s pozicionavimas yra neatskiriama ir pati svarbiausia STP modelio dalis.Jei pirmi STP mode ar nepilnai, s kmingai pozicionuoti prek s rinkoje nepavyks. Apibendrinant daugelio mokslinink nuomones, akivaizdu, kad prek s pozicionavimas rinkoje yra sud tingas ir t stinis procesas. Pozicionuodami prek gali b 1) Konkuruojan i preki ; 2) Apsisprendimo atribut identifikavimas ir j vertinimas; 3) Esamos prek s pozicijos nustatymas; 4) lapio suk rimas; 5) Norimos pozicijos rinkoje nustatymas; 6) Pozicionavimo arba perpozicionavimo strategijos parinkimas; 7) Poz icionavimo teiginio suk rimas. prek s pozicionavimas, prek s pozicionavimo etapai, lapis, pozicionavimo ir perpozicionavimo strategija, pozicionavimo teiginys. rieinamumas, pelningumas. Svarbu pateikti atribut , kurio nesi lo konkurentai, arba atribut pateikti specialia forma. nusta ius vartotoj apsisprendimo atributus, reikia numatyti, kaip pagal juos vartotojai vertina prek ir konkurent prekes. Tam geriausiai tinka kokybiniai vertinti prek ir konkurent prekes pagal svarbiausius apsisprendimo technikas, kurias V. Pranulis (1998) rio matavimo vertinimo skal s, Likerto (sumini vertinim ) skal , semantin diferencialin skal , Stapel skal vertinimo skal , fiksuotos sumos skal r , por pasirinkimo skal . The article has been reviewed.

Enzyme Inhibition

Enzyme Inhibition Many drugs exert their action by inhibition of an enzyme activity in the body. If the activity of an enzyme is vital to the cell or organism, then inhibition may lead to death of the cell or organism. It is now possible to design new drugs which are enzyme inhibitors once a target enzyme has been identified. Types of Inhibitors A) Reversible Inhibitors:  The effect of the inhibitor is instantaneous, and it can be removed from the enzyme by dialysis so that the enzyme activity is returned to normal.Such inhibitors interact with the enzyme by weak non-covalent bonds to form an enzyme inhibitor complex. E + I ? EI B) Irreversible Inhibitors:  These inhibitors bind very tightly to the enzyme, sometimes by formation of covalent bonds to form an enzyme inhibitor compound rather than a loose complex. The effect is therefore progressive with time reaching a maximum when all of the enzyme has reacted. This is not easily reversed by simple physical treatments such as dial ysis. E + I > EI Reversible Inhibition of EnzymesThere are three types of reversible enzyme inhibition;  competitive, non-competitive  (also called mixed)  and uncompetitive. Competitive- molecules which closely resemble the substrate in size, shape and charge distribution may also slip into the active site. This may result in reaction i. e. the second molecule is another substrate for the enzyme, or it may result in inhibition because the active site is blocked. The inhibitor has a separate equilibrium with the enzyme. The binding of substrate and inhibitor is mutually exclusive. E + S ? ES > E + P, E + I ?EI Each of these equilibria is characterised by a dissociation constant. The first by Km (the Michaelis constant) and the second by Ki which characterises the binding between enzyme and inhibitor. If sufficient [S] is present then eventually the inhibition by I will be overcome. This is the diagnostic test for this type of inhibition. Both I and S compete for the available enzyme. The activity of an enzyme is described by the following equation: (Michaelis- Menton equation) In the presence of a  competitive reversible inhibitor, this equation becomes;So the  Michaelis constant  (which is a reciprocal measure of affinity of E and S) is changed by the factor 1 + [I]/Ki where [I] is the inhibitor concentration and  Ki is the dissociation constant for the equilibrium between E and I. Most importantly,  Vmax is unchanged  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ this is diagnostic for this type of inhibition. Ki is best defined as the concentration of inhibitor required to slow the reaction to half the rate it shows in the absence of inhibitor. It is a reciprocal measure of the affinity of E and I. Lineweaver-Burk Plot for Competitive Reversible InhibitionThe  intercept on the y axis represents 1/Vmax. The slope is altered by the factor 1 + [I]/Ki, but the  easiest way to calculate Ki  is from the  ratio of the intercepts on the x axis. Without inhibitor the intercept is -1//Km, with inhibitor it is -1/Km(1+[I]/Ki), so the ratio (bigger over smaller so it is greater than 1) is 1 + [I]/Ki. Easiest way to calculate Ki  is from the  ratio of the intercepts on the x axis. Equation: Other Types of Reversible Inhibition Uncompetitive- This type of reversible inhibition is said to occur when the inhibitor binds with the enzyme-substrate complex rather than the enzyme.Substrate and inhibitor bind dependently. Noncompetitive (Mixed)- This type occurs when the inhibitor binds to both the enzyme and enzyme-substrate complex. Substrate and inhibitor bind independently. Irreversible Inhibition of Enzymes Reversible  means that the timescale of the inhibition is similar to that of the enzyme action, usually measured over a few minutes. Irreversible  means that the enzyme activity is inhibited for times significantly longer than the assay times for the enzyme. It does not necessarily mean that the inhibition will not reverse given sufficient time i. . hours, days or weeks. Some of the most interesting examples of enzyme inhibitors as drugs are those which fall between the two extremes and are sometimes defined as Quasi-Irreversible. These include tight-binding inhibitors, transition state analogues and slowly dissociating intermediates. Tight-Binding inhibitors  and  Transition State Analogues  form high affinity complexes with the enzyme and may have Ki values in the order of nanomolar (10-9  mol L-1). The value of Ki will be very important in describing the potency of this type of inhibitor.As a rough guide the inhibitor concentration causing 50% inhibition (I50) is used as a measure of Ki. Slowly Dissociating Intermediates  react with the enzyme to form covalent intermediates which take time to dissociate from the enzyme. A Classification of Enzyme Inhibitors as Drugs For a compound to work as a drug in vivo it will ideally have TWO very important properties. These are; Potency  To work in vivo as an enzyme inhibit or the inhibitor will need to be potent enough so that the dose required is in the order of milligrams to grams.Specificity  If a compound is a nonspecific enzyme inhibitor it is more likely to be toxic and exhibit serious side effects. It may be a poison. Simple Reversible- A simple reversible inhibitor binds to the enzyme and decreases the enzyme activity instantaneously and reverses within the time of the enzyme action. The inhibitor binds non-covalently (ionic interactions, hydrogen bonds, Van Der Waal's forces) to the enzyme and the strength of binding is of a similar order to the substrate i. e. Ki will be of similar size to Km. For very good reasons, the Km values for enzymes vary between about 10-2  mol L-1  to 10-6mol L-1.Unlikely to be potent enough to work in vivo where competition occurs in a dynamic metabolic situation. For a simple competitive inhibitor the inhibition will be self-limiting. If an enzyme is not rate limiting, it may be necessary to achieve ;90% in hibition before any increase in substrate concentration occurs. To do this the inhibitor concentration needs to be approximately 20 times the Ki value. Conformationally Restricted Competitive Inhibitors- It is possible that a reversible competitive inhibitor which is a conformationally restricted analogue of the substrate will have a much higher affinity for the enzyme han does the substrate and hence can be potent enough to work in vivo at reasonable concentrations. Such compounds may have Ki values in the region of 1 x 10-7  mol L-1 Quasi-Irreversible Tight Binding Inhibitors- This is an extension of the previous class i. e. competitive inhibitors which are conformationally restricted and/or have many non-covalent interactions leading to long lasting complexes. Therefore binding is very tight (Ki in order of 10-9  mol L-1  to 10-10  mol L-1) and these compounds are potent enough to act as drugs in vivo.Transition State Analogues- Theoretically, an analogue of a transition state (or reaction intermediate) for the enzyme catalysed reaction will bind much tighter than an analogue of the substrate. The outcome is a potent and potentially specific inhibitor. Theoretically, Ki values can be very low. In practice if Ki values in the region of Nano molar can be achieved, these are potent enough to work in vivo. As we shall see, there has been much work in this area on proteases including HIV protease and there are now a major class of drugs which has been developed on this principle.Slowly Dissociating Intermediates- Some enzymes form covalent intermediates as part of their mechanism e. g. acetylcholinesterase. It is possible for a compound to act as a pseudo-substrate and be converted into a long lasting intermediate. Such an inhibition is time dependent and in some cases is virtually irreversible. Sometimes the intermediate is hydrolysed in minutes or hours but this is still much longer than the normal enzyme mechanism when the intermediate would last only milliseconds. Examples include the anticholinesterases neostigmine and physostigmine (eserine) and penicillin.Irreversible Nonspecific: a. Heavy metal poisons e. g. cyanide, hydrogen sulphide, carbon monoxide- Some enzymes and other important proteins such as Haemoglobin and Cytochromes, require metals as cofactors. These metals are often transition metals such as Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn and ligands which are electron rich will form co-ordinate covalent bonds with these metals will inactivate these proteins. These bonds are strong and very often these ligands are toxic because of this irreversible inactivation.Cyanide reacts with cytochrome oxidase which is the terminal electron carrier in the electron transport chain by ligand formation with the Cu atom at the centre of its mechanism. Similarly, carbon monoxide complexes with the Fe atom in the haem cofactor of haemoglobin. b. Heavy metal ions e. g. mercury, lead etc. – These are common irreversible inhibitors because of their abili ty to complex firmly with particular groups in enzymes. These effects can be reversed by treatment with chelating agents such as EDTA (ethylene di-amino tetra acetic acid). c. Thiol poisons e. . alkylating agents, Arsenic (III) Many enzymes contain thiol (-SH) groups in amino acid side chains – cysteine, which are essential for catalytic activity. Any compound which reacts with these functional groups will poison the enzyme. E. g. Iodoacetamide  (alkylating agent) Arsenic- The most toxic form of Arsenic is As (III) as in arsenite AsO2. In this form, Arsenic reacts rapidly with  thiol groups, especially with dithiols such as lipoic acid which is an essential cofactor for some important enzymes such as pyruvate dehydrogenase and -ketoglutarate dehyrdrogenase.You should remember these enzymes as part of the link reaction and the citric acid cycle. When these enzymes are blocked, respiration stops. Arsenic derivatives have been prepared as very poisonous war gases e. g. Lewis ite. antidote called  Dimercaprol (‘British Anti-Lewisite')  was designed by incorporating two thiols for the poison to react with. The two thiol groups react with the arsenical war gas forming a stable compound and thus stopping it from blocking the thiol groups in lipoic acid. Dimercaprol  is used these days as an antidote to poisoning with heavy metals such as antimony, arsenic, mercury, bismuth, gold, thallium.It is also used in conjunction with pencillamine in the treatment of lead poisoning (see BNF). Specific Irreversible Inhibitors: Affinity Labels (Active site directed irreversible inhibitors)- An analogue of the substrate which binds to the active site of an enzyme, but which contains a chemically reactive group, has the potential to form covalent bonds with side chains at or near the active site. These inhibitors are irreversible and have been very useful in elucidating enzyme mechanisms but their reactive nature makes them likely to be toxic when used in vivo .Mechanism-based Inhibitors (‘suicide reagents') – The principle of this sort of inhibition is that a pseudo substrate is accepted by the enzyme which then catalyses the production of its own inhibitor which reacts covalently in the active site. Such inhibitors should be specific as well as potent. Certain monoamine oxidase inhibitors have this mechanism, also the -lactamase inhibitors (e. g. clavulanate). The pyridoxal phosphate (vitamin B6) dependent enzymes have been a particular candidate for the development of this kind of inhibitor (e. g. difluoromethyldopa). Enzyme inhibitors:Edrophonium – conformationally restricted competitive reversible, ACE inhibitors – Tight binding, HIV protease inhibitors – Transition state analogues, Neostigmine, Penicillin – Slowly dissociating intermediates DFP – Irreversible group specific reagent, Clavulanate – mechanism-based irreversible inhibitor. Types of Enzyme Inhibitors Simple Reversibl e| Competitive (also uncompetitive, noncompetitive, mixed)| Simple substrate analogues Michaelis-Menten kinetics Ki in region of Km i. e. 10-2  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ 10-6  M| Restricted Conformation| Rigid shape similar to favoured substrate fit Ki less than Km| e. g. drophonium as inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase| Quasi-Irreversible| Tight Binding Ki can be in region of nanomolar| E. g. ACE inhibitors Captopril, enalapril etc. | | Transition State Analogues. Binding constant theoretically below nanomolar| Inhibitors of proteinases e. g. pepsin, renin, HIV proteinase| | Slowly Dissociating Intermediates – time dependent kinetics| e. g. neostigmine, eserine as anticholinesterases Penicillin| Irreversible| Heavy metal poisons etc| Cyanide, Hydrogen Sulphide, Carbon Monoxide| | Group reagents| e. g. Arsenic (III), Iodoacetamide| | DFP action on esterases| | Affinity labels| TPCK on Chymotrypsin| | Mechanism Based (‘suicide inhibitors')| e. g. Clavulanate onlactamase| Enzyme Inhibi tors as Drugs ENZYME| INHIBITOR(S)| USES| Acetylcholinesterase| Edrophonium Neostigmine Eserine| Myasthenia Gravis Glaucoma Paralytic Ileus| Monoamine Oxidase| Tranylcypramine| Depression| Xanthine Oxidase| Allopurinol| Gout, adjunct to Cancer chemotherapy| Carbonic Anhydrase| Acetazolamide| Diuresis| Dihydrofolate Reductase| Methotrexate| Leukaemia|Transpeptidase| Penicillin| Antibacterial| Cyclo-oxygenase| Aspirin etc. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs| Analgesia Anti-inflammatory Anti-platelet| Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE)| Captopril, enalapril, lisinopril etc. | Anti-hypertension| Thymidylate Synthetase| Fluorouracil| Cancer chemotherapy| Penicillinase (-lactamase)| Clavulanate etc| Anti-bacterial| HIV proteinase| Saquinovar etc| HIV treatment| Reverse Transcriptase| AZT| HIV treatment| HMG-CoA Reductase| Statins, pravastatin etc. | Coronary Heart Disease| Phospodiesterase V| Viagra| Erectile dysfunction|

Free Essays on Nelson Mandela

Profile of Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela Nelson Mandela's greatest pleasure, his most private moment, is watching the sun set with the music of Handel or Tchaikovsky playing. Locked up in his cell during daylight hours, deprived of music, both these simple pleasures were denied him for decades. With his fellow prisoners, concerts were organised when possible, particularly at Christmas time, where they would sing. Nelson Mandela finds music very uplifting, and takes a keen interest not only in European classical music but also in African choral music and the many talents in South African music. But one voice stands out above all - that of Paul Robeson, whom he describes as our hero. The years in jail reinforced habits that were already entrenched: the disciplined eating regime of an athlete began in the 1940s, as did the early morning exercise. Still today Nelson Mandela is up by 4.30am, irrespective of how late he has worked the previous evening. By 5am he has begun his exercise routine that lasts at least an hour. Breakfast is by 6.30, when the days newspapers are read. The day s work has begun. With a standard working day of at least 12 hours, time management is critical and Nelson Mandela is extremely impatient with unpunctuality, regarding it as insulting to those you are dealing with. When speaking of the extensive travelling he has undertaken since his release from prison, Nelson Mandela says: I was helped when preparing for my release by the biography of Pandit Nehru, who wrote of what happens when you leave jail. My daughter Zinzi says that she grew up without a father, who, when he returned, became a father of the nation. This has placed a great responsibility of my shoulders. And wherever I travel, I immediately begin to miss the familiar - the mine dumps, the colour and smell that is uniquely South African, and, above all, the people. I do not like to be away for any length of time. For me, there is no place like home. ... Free Essays on Nelson Mandela Free Essays on Nelson Mandela Profile of Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela Nelson Mandela's greatest pleasure, his most private moment, is watching the sun set with the music of Handel or Tchaikovsky playing. Locked up in his cell during daylight hours, deprived of music, both these simple pleasures were denied him for decades. With his fellow prisoners, concerts were organised when possible, particularly at Christmas time, where they would sing. Nelson Mandela finds music very uplifting, and takes a keen interest not only in European classical music but also in African choral music and the many talents in South African music. But one voice stands out above all - that of Paul Robeson, whom he describes as our hero. The years in jail reinforced habits that were already entrenched: the disciplined eating regime of an athlete began in the 1940s, as did the early morning exercise. Still today Nelson Mandela is up by 4.30am, irrespective of how late he has worked the previous evening. By 5am he has begun his exercise routine that lasts at least an hour. Breakfast is by 6.30, when the days newspapers are read. The day s work has begun. With a standard working day of at least 12 hours, time management is critical and Nelson Mandela is extremely impatient with unpunctuality, regarding it as insulting to those you are dealing with. When speaking of the extensive travelling he has undertaken since his release from prison, Nelson Mandela says: I was helped when preparing for my release by the biography of Pandit Nehru, who wrote of what happens when you leave jail. My daughter Zinzi says that she grew up without a father, who, when he returned, became a father of the nation. This has placed a great responsibility of my shoulders. And wherever I travel, I immediately begin to miss the familiar - the mine dumps, the colour and smell that is uniquely South African, and, above all, the people. I do not like to be away for any length of time. For me, there is no place like home. ... Free Essays on Nelson Mandela Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela was born in a village near Umtata in the Transkei on the 18 July 1918. His father was the principal councillor to the Acting Paramount Chief of Thembuland. After his father s death, the young Rolihlahla became the Paramount Chief ward to be groomed to assume high office. However, influenced by the cases that came before the Chief s court, he determined to become a lawyer. Hearing the elder’s stories of his ancestors’ valour during the wars of resistance in defence of their fatherland, he dreamed also of making his own contribution to the freedom struggle of his people. After receiving a primary education at a local mission school, Nelson Mandela was sent to Healdtown, a Wesleyan secondary school of some repute where he matriculated. He then enrolled at the University College of Fort Hare for the Bachelor of Arts Degree where he was elected onto the Student's Representative Council. He was suspended from college for joining in a protest boycott. He went to Johannesburg where he completed his BA by correspondence. He entered politics while studying in Johannesburg by joining the African National Congress in 1942. At the height of the Second World War a small group of young Africans, members of the African National Congress, banded together under the leadership of Anton Lembede. Among them were Mandela and others. Starting out with 60 members these young people set themselves the formidable task of transforming the ANC into a mass movement, taking its strength and motivation from the unlettered millions of working people in the towns and countryside, the peasants and the professionals. In September 1944 they came together to found the African National Congress Youth League. Mandela soon impressed his peers by his disciplined work and consistent effort and was elected as the secretary of the Youth League in 1947. Later he was elected as President in 1950 and then deputy national president in 1952. When the A...

3 Strategies for Getting a Promotion

3 Strategies for Getting a Promotion You’ve made yourself indispensable. You’re everybody’s go-to worker bee. There’s no project too difficult, no task too daunting for you, no crisis you can’t fix!   The trouble is, you feel like you’re doing the work of three people, but only getting the credit for your position. Even if there’s simply no room in the budget to give you a raise right now, it is possible to have your new responsibilities more accurately reflected in your job title. It’s not a silly thing to want your title to sum up what you do; this will make it much easier to represent yourself on your resume and on networking platforms like LinkedIn.Here are three guidelines to steer you in your quest for a title bump.1. Choose wiselyIt’s tempting to choose a trendy title like â€Å"Bliss Doula† or â€Å"Marketing Ninja,† but kitschy names like this can actually hurt your career. Choose a title that, while not boring, accurately represents your responsibilities, experience, and skills, and then sex it up only as much as you can without appearing ridiculous. The trick is to broadcast to the professional world exactly how capable you are- not to win any self-branding contests.2. Know your momentThere are good times and bad times to ask for a title bump- even one that’s totally deserved. If your extra work, the stuff you feel is â€Å"above and beyond,† could still reasonably fall under the clause in your job description that says â€Å"Other duties as required,† then chances are your boss or HR manager isn’t going to go for a title change. Wait until you have a really convincing argument. Document the scope of extra work you’re doing- particularly if you’ve taken over responsibilities from other positions.3. Make your caseIf you can show the extra weight you’re bearing, then you’ll have a much better time convincing the powers-that-be to give you that sexy title u pdate- and the prestige and swagger that come with it, even if only in your head.Go into the meeting prepared. Have a revised, written version of your job description that you can compare with the job description when you were hired. Compare your current duties to other positions within the company, or in the field. If you can prove you’re doing what the market recognizes as falling under a better title, any reasonable HR department will hear you out. Feel free to bring in research from GlassDoor or LinkedIn to help seal the deal.Whether or not you succeed, if you’re really going above and beyond, it might be time to ask. And if your higher-ups aren’t willing to recognize and reward you for the work you’re actually doing, that’s always a good thing to know.

Deontological Second Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Deontological Second Paper - Essay Example In order to discuss the ethical acceptability of the direct-to-consumer marketing of pharmaceutical drugs from a deontological point of view, it is good to consider Kant’s categorical imperative. The categorical imperative is the central philosophical theory in the deontological moral philosophy proposed by Immanuel Kant in his work Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals in 1785. This philosophical concept is generally accepted as a way of analyzing motivations for action. â€Å"Kant’s categorical imperative states that an action is morally right if and only we can will that the maxim (or principle) represented by our action be a universal law† (as qtd in Shaw 58). Kant strongly says that reason alone can produce a moral law and there is no need of empirical reasoning to arrive at absolute moral truth. Kant specifically tells that a moral rule should be consistently universalizable and free from internal contradiction. As Masters cite from Kant, moral rules must be based on categorical imperatives but not hypothetical imperatives (111). He adds that those rules must necessarily bind everyone unconditionally, and should not take specific goals or desires of individuals into account. Referring to Kant’s categorical imperatives, it is unethical to allow the direct-to-consumer marketing of pharmaceutical drugs. As George describes in the case study, it is clear that the pharmaceutical industry spent $1.19 billion on TV ads in 2005 (319). Although the industry leaders claim that these TV ads educate people about a variety of illnesses and keep them informed of the possible drugs to treat those illnesses, it is obvious that their actual motive is to generate more sales and to increase profits. When prescription drugs are marketed on a business motive, healthcare becomes a commodity, and the situation hurts fundamental human values. Actually, prescription